Difference between revisions of "The Tragedy of the Commons - The Tuna Example"

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===Tragedy of the commons – an example===
 
===Tragedy of the commons – an example===
 +
<br/>
  
 
Hardin's analysis focuses on a pasture that herders use in common for grazing their cattle. There are no problems with the common usage of the pasture until the number of animals reaches the carrying capacity of the pasture. In order to gain extra profits, herders add additional animals to the common pasture. The problem is that each additional animal means more grazing in the pasture, and the continual addition of animals eventually leads to overgrazing of the pasture. The end result is the destruction of the pasture. In the words of Hardin, "each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit-in a world that is limited"<ref>Garrett Hardin, (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, December 13,1968, p.1243</ref>.
 
Hardin's analysis focuses on a pasture that herders use in common for grazing their cattle. There are no problems with the common usage of the pasture until the number of animals reaches the carrying capacity of the pasture. In order to gain extra profits, herders add additional animals to the common pasture. The problem is that each additional animal means more grazing in the pasture, and the continual addition of animals eventually leads to overgrazing of the pasture. The end result is the destruction of the pasture. In the words of Hardin, "each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit-in a world that is limited"<ref>Garrett Hardin, (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, December 13,1968, p.1243</ref>.
  
 
+
[[Image:The_Bluefin_Tuna.jpg|thumb|left|Figure 1:The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Source: NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service]]
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 
===Fishery in the tragedy of the commons scenario===
 
===Fishery in the tragedy of the commons scenario===
 +
<br/>
  
 
Fisheries are similar to Hardin’s pasture in that increased fishing pressure has caused certain stocks of fish to become over fished to a point that threatens the survival of the fishery. All the conditions described by Hardin are met in this case: an unrestricted number of users, unfettered by any limits on their access, extract an increasing share of a resource until natural resources are severely depleted. Fishers tend to have little incentive to practice conservation, for they know that if they do not catch the available fish, someone else probably will<ref>Harris, Jonathan; Codur Anne-Marie; (2007) Economics of fisheries, Encyclopedia of Earth, www.eoearth.org/article/Economics_of_fisheries</ref>.
 
Fisheries are similar to Hardin’s pasture in that increased fishing pressure has caused certain stocks of fish to become over fished to a point that threatens the survival of the fishery. All the conditions described by Hardin are met in this case: an unrestricted number of users, unfettered by any limits on their access, extract an increasing share of a resource until natural resources are severely depleted. Fishers tend to have little incentive to practice conservation, for they know that if they do not catch the available fish, someone else probably will<ref>Harris, Jonathan; Codur Anne-Marie; (2007) Economics of fisheries, Encyclopedia of Earth, www.eoearth.org/article/Economics_of_fisheries</ref>.
+
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
  
Fish resources all over the world are in danger of extinction, the major risks being:
+
'''Fish resources all over the world are in danger of extinction, the major risks being:'''
  
  
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== The Tuna Example ==
 
== The Tuna Example ==
 +
<br/>
  
Tuna are several species of ocean-dwelling fish in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. Tunas are fast swimmers—they have been clocked at 70 km/h (43 mph)—and include several species that are warm-blooded. Tunas are sub-classified into four genera (Thunnus, Euthynnus, Katsuwonus, Auxis and Allothunnus) with fifteen species all together. They are all oceanic, capable of long migrations or movements<ref>Allen, R. L. (2002). Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and
+
Tuna are several species of ocean-dwelling fish in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus ''Thunnus''. Tunas are fast swimmers—they have been clocked at 70 km/h (43 mph)—and include several species that are warm-blooded. Tunas are sub-classified into five genera (''Thunnus'', ''Euthynnus'', ''Katsuwonus'', ''Auxis'' and ''Allothunnus'') with fifteen species altogether. They are all oceanic, capable of long migrations or movements<ref>Allen, R. L. (2002). Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and
technological issues. Proceedings of the Tuna 2002 Kuala Lumpur, 7th INFOFISH World Tuna Trade Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 30 May-1 June, 2002, pp. 3-12. Kuala Lumpur, INFOFISH. 208 pp.</ref>. Total catch of the 5 main tuna species expanded quite strongly between 1985- 2005: from 2.16 million MT to over 4.2 million MT, The main tuna catching nations are concentrated in Asia, with Japan and Taiwan (Province of China) as the main producers. Other important tuna catching nations in Asia are Indonesia, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines<ref>Josupeit, Helga; (2004) Global World Tuna Markets” INFOFISH TUNA CONFERENCE 3-5 June 2004, Bangkok, Thailand, Food and Agriculture Organisation</ref>.
+
technological issues. Proceedings of the Tuna 2002 Kuala Lumpur, 7th INFOFISH World Tuna Trade Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 30 May-1 June, 2002, pp. 3-12. Kuala Lumpur, INFOFISH. 208 pp.</ref>. Total catch of the five main tuna species expanded quite strongly between 1985- 2005: from 2.16 million MT to over 4.2 million MT, The main tuna catching nations are concentrated in Asia, with Japan and Taiwan (Province of China) as the main producers. Other important tuna catching nations in Asia are Indonesia, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines<ref>Josupeit, Helga; (2004) Global World Tuna Markets” INFOFISH TUNA CONFERENCE 3-5 June 2004, Bangkok, Thailand, Food and Agriculture Organisation</ref>.
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1: Review of Global Tuna Trade and Major Markets Source: David James Consultant FAO and Helga Josupeit, Fish Utilization and Marketing Service FAO, Power Point Presentation 2007
 
 
 
  
  
 +
[[Image:Tuna_catches_by_species.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Figure 2: Review of Global Tuna Trade and Major Markets Source: David James Consultant FAO and Helga Josupeit, Fish Utilization and Marketing Service FAO, Power Point Presentation 2007]]
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 
Growing demand for tuna products has been stimulating increases in the catches. At the same time, demand for tuna has been keeping prices at levels that have ensured adequate income for all stakeholders. However, in the case of some species such as skipjack continuous high exploitation has created an excess of supply, causing prices, and therefore income of operators, to decline.
 
Growing demand for tuna products has been stimulating increases in the catches. At the same time, demand for tuna has been keeping prices at levels that have ensured adequate income for all stakeholders. However, in the case of some species such as skipjack continuous high exploitation has created an excess of supply, causing prices, and therefore income of operators, to decline.
 
+
<br/>
 +
<br/>
  
 
===Management of tuna===
 
===Management of tuna===
 +
<br/>
  
There are five regional bodies responsible for managing tuna stocks  
+
'''There are five regional bodies responsible for managing tuna stocks:'''
  
  
* Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna
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* [http://www.ccsbt.org/ Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna]<br/>
* Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
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* [http://www.iattc.org/ Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission]<br/>
* International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
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* [http://www.iccat.int/ International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas]<br/>
* Indian Ocean Tuna Commission
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* [http://www.iotc.org/ Indian Ocean Tuna Commission] <br/>
* Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
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* [http://www.wcpfc.int/ Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission] <br/>
 +
<br/>
 +
The five met together for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas.
  
  
The five met together for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas<ref>AFP/Reuters (2007) Conference approves global plan to save tuna stocks http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200701/s1834563.htm, Retrieved on 2008-02-10</ref>.
+
===The case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (''Thunnus thynnus'')===
 
+
<br/>
 
 
===The case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)===
 
  
 
Atlantic, Pacific and southern bluefin contribute relatively little in terms of volume to the total catches of principal market tunas, but their individual value is high due to their use for sashimi and sushi (Japanese delicacy). These fish are migratory and are known to traverse the Atlantic Ocean in a few months. Bluefin tuna are among the largest bony fish in the ocean, reaching over 3.05 meters in length and over 500 kilograms in weight. Their lifespan can exceed 30 years, making them long lived among fish species <ref>An Assessment of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (1994), Committee to Review Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources (CGER), National Academy Press; page 5</ref>.  
 
Atlantic, Pacific and southern bluefin contribute relatively little in terms of volume to the total catches of principal market tunas, but their individual value is high due to their use for sashimi and sushi (Japanese delicacy). These fish are migratory and are known to traverse the Atlantic Ocean in a few months. Bluefin tuna are among the largest bony fish in the ocean, reaching over 3.05 meters in length and over 500 kilograms in weight. Their lifespan can exceed 30 years, making them long lived among fish species <ref>An Assessment of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (1994), Committee to Review Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources (CGER), National Academy Press; page 5</ref>.  
 
+
<br/>
 
+
<br/>
 
+
[[Image:Distribution_of_the_Atlantic_and_Pacific_bluefin_tunas.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Figure 3: Distribution of the Atlantic and Pacific bluefin tunas and their respective fisheries operation area  Source: Allen, R. L. 2002. Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability, page 164]]
Figure 2: Distribution of the Atlantic and Pacific bluefin tunas and their respective fisheries operation area  Source: Allen, R. L. 2002. Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability, page 164
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
Catches of Atlantic bluefin followed a generally declining trend from the early 1950s to the early 1970s <ref>Allen, R. L. (2002) Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari, eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and technological issues, page 168</ref>. The Atlantic population of the species has declined by nearly 90 percent since the 1970s <ref>Safina; (1996). Thunnus thynnus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006</ref>. Atlantic bluefin tuna take eight years to mature to large-medium sized fish. Scientists believe that the decline in the numbers of larger sized bluefin tuna can be attributed to the high volume of juvenile bluefin tuna caught. The problem is that fishers catch so many juvenile bluefin tunas that there are none left to mature <ref>Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 3</ref>.
 
Catches of Atlantic bluefin followed a generally declining trend from the early 1950s to the early 1970s <ref>Allen, R. L. (2002) Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari, eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and technological issues, page 168</ref>. The Atlantic population of the species has declined by nearly 90 percent since the 1970s <ref>Safina; (1996). Thunnus thynnus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006</ref>. Atlantic bluefin tuna take eight years to mature to large-medium sized fish. Scientists believe that the decline in the numbers of larger sized bluefin tuna can be attributed to the high volume of juvenile bluefin tuna caught. The problem is that fishers catch so many juvenile bluefin tunas that there are none left to mature <ref>Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 3</ref>.
 
+
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 
There are two ways to save the Atlantic bluefin tuna stock- protect them in their breeding grounds and in their feeding grounds. This will require immediate action in both the central Atlantic, to reduce the mortality of the giant bluefin while foraging, and in the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean, where bluefin breed as discrete populations <ref> Radford, Tim; (2005) Scientists call for urgent action to save Atlantic Tuna, The  Guardian, April 28 2005</ref>.
 
There are two ways to save the Atlantic bluefin tuna stock- protect them in their breeding grounds and in their feeding grounds. This will require immediate action in both the central Atlantic, to reduce the mortality of the giant bluefin while foraging, and in the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean, where bluefin breed as discrete populations <ref> Radford, Tim; (2005) Scientists call for urgent action to save Atlantic Tuna, The  Guardian, April 28 2005</ref>.
 
+
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 
The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) has recommended, in light of severe stress on the Atlantic Ocean’s population of bluefin tuna that, for the indefinite future, no commercial fishing for juvenile fish or this species is allowed<ref>Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 1</ref>.  
 
The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) has recommended, in light of severe stress on the Atlantic Ocean’s population of bluefin tuna that, for the indefinite future, no commercial fishing for juvenile fish or this species is allowed<ref>Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 1</ref>.  
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
  
 +
[[Image:Bluefin_tuna_stock.jpg|thumb|right|Figure 4:The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Bluefin tuna stock in the Mediterranean is threatened by overfishing and illegal fishing Source: Brian Skerry / National Geographic Image Collection]]
  
 +
<br/>
 +
<br/>
  
 +
== Conclusion ==
 +
<br/>
  
Figure 3: The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus),  
+
It is difficult to be prescriptive regarding what is an appropriate extractive policy for a fishery; the policy will differ depending on the individual characteristics of the fishery, the fishers and the objectives of the property right holder. Some form of regulation is needed in a fishery to prevent the “tragedy of the commons” – where individual fishers are motivated to operate beyond the maximum sustainable yield, often leading to biological and economic over-exploitation. Without a clearly defined set of policies, the consequent institutions may not achieve a desired result<ref>Peterson, Elizabeth H;(2006) Institutional Economics and Fisheries Management, The Case of Pacific Tuna, page 40</ref>.
Source: NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service
 
  
  
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 +
== See also ==
  
  
 
+
===Internal links===
Figure 4: The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Bluefin tuna stock in the Mediterranean is threatened by overfishing and illegal fishing Source: Brian Skerry / National Geographic Image Collection
+
:[[Impact of fisheries on coastal systems]]
 
+
:[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]
 
+
:[[Legislation for the sea]]
 
+
:[[The tragedy of the commons: Is the Newfoundland's cod crisis a good example?]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
== Conclusion ==
 
 
 
 
 
It is difficult to be prescriptive regarding what is an appropriate extractive policy for a fishery; the policy will differ depending on the individual characteristics of the fishery, the fishers and the objectives of the property right holder. Some form of regulation is needed in a fishery to prevent the “tragedy of the commons” – where individual fishers are motivated to operate beyond the maximum sustainable yield, often leading to biological and economic over-exploitation. Without a clearly defined set of policies, the consequent institutions may not achieve a desired result<ref>Peterson, Elizabeth H;(2006) Institutional Economics and Fisheries Management, The Case of Pacific Tuna, page 40</ref>.
 
  
  
 +
===External links===
 +
[https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Economics_of_fisheries Economics of fisheries- Encyclopedia of Earth]  <br/>
 +
<br/>
  
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 +
<br/>
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
 
+
<br/>
  
 
   
 
   
 +
{{author
 +
|AuthorID=
 +
|AuthorFullName=Caroline Krause
 +
|AuthorName=Ckrause}}
  
== See also ==
+
[[Category:Coastal and marine fisheries]]
 
+
[[Category:Coastal and marine ecosystems]]  
 
+
[[Category:Integrated coastal zone management]]
===Internal links===
 
 
 
[[Impact of fisheries on coastal systems]] <br/>
 
[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] <br/>
 
[[The tragedy of the commons: Is the Newfoundland's cod crisis a good example?]]<br/>
 
 
 
===External links===
 
 
 
[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/europe/what_we_do/mediterranean/about/marine/bluefin_tuna/index.cfm WWF, Bluefin tuna in crisis] <br/>
 
[http://www.fao.org/fishery/ FAO Fisheries Department]<br/>
 
[http://www.ccsbt.org/ Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna]<br/>
 
[http://www.iattc.org/ Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission]<br/>
 
[http://www.iccat.int/ International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas]<br/>
 
[http://www.iotc.org/ Indian Ocean Tuna Commission] <br/>
 
[http://www.wcpfc.int/ Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission] <br/>
 
[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Economics_of_fisheries  Economics of fisheries- Encyclopedia of Earth]  <br/>
 
[http://www.cipec.org/research/institutional_analysis/w98-24.pdf Coping with tragedies of the commons ] <br/>
 

Revision as of 14:25, 14 July 2020

Overview of the tragedy of the commons

The tragedy of the commons refers to a paper which was written by biologist Garret Hardin in 1968. He used the expression as a metaphor for the problems of overuse and degradation of natural resources including the destruction of fisheries, the over harvesting of timber, and the degradation of water resources[1]. The word tragedy refers to the depletion of the common fish resources and the commons stands for common ownership, hence the absence of private ownership and property rights[2].


Tragedy of the commons – an example


Hardin's analysis focuses on a pasture that herders use in common for grazing their cattle. There are no problems with the common usage of the pasture until the number of animals reaches the carrying capacity of the pasture. In order to gain extra profits, herders add additional animals to the common pasture. The problem is that each additional animal means more grazing in the pasture, and the continual addition of animals eventually leads to overgrazing of the pasture. The end result is the destruction of the pasture. In the words of Hardin, "each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit-in a world that is limited"[3].

Figure 1:The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Source: NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service



Fishery in the tragedy of the commons scenario


Fisheries are similar to Hardin’s pasture in that increased fishing pressure has caused certain stocks of fish to become over fished to a point that threatens the survival of the fishery. All the conditions described by Hardin are met in this case: an unrestricted number of users, unfettered by any limits on their access, extract an increasing share of a resource until natural resources are severely depleted. Fishers tend to have little incentive to practice conservation, for they know that if they do not catch the available fish, someone else probably will[4].


Fish resources all over the world are in danger of extinction, the major risks being:


  • An excessive fishing fleet capacity and fishing effort
  • Depleted fish stock
  • Low profitability (operating surpluses near zero)
  • High inter-annual variability of stock size and catches
  • Excessive risk of collapse of fish stocks[5]


It should be noted that alongside these factors others such as water pollution in particular with heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, nutrients from agriculture and oil, in marine and coastal areas have also played a decisive role in the reducing fish stocks[6]. The oceans have been called a common heritage resource – they belong to everyone and no one. But under the 1982 Law of the Sea, agreed to under United Nations auspices, nation can claim territorial rights to many important offshore fisheries. They can then limit access these fisheries by requiring fishing licenses.


The Tuna Example


Tuna are several species of ocean-dwelling fish in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. Tunas are fast swimmers—they have been clocked at 70 km/h (43 mph)—and include several species that are warm-blooded. Tunas are sub-classified into five genera (Thunnus, Euthynnus, Katsuwonus, Auxis and Allothunnus) with fifteen species altogether. They are all oceanic, capable of long migrations or movements[7]. Total catch of the five main tuna species expanded quite strongly between 1985- 2005: from 2.16 million MT to over 4.2 million MT, The main tuna catching nations are concentrated in Asia, with Japan and Taiwan (Province of China) as the main producers. Other important tuna catching nations in Asia are Indonesia, the Republic of Korea and the Philippines[8].


Figure 2: Review of Global Tuna Trade and Major Markets Source: David James Consultant FAO and Helga Josupeit, Fish Utilization and Marketing Service FAO, Power Point Presentation 2007



Growing demand for tuna products has been stimulating increases in the catches. At the same time, demand for tuna has been keeping prices at levels that have ensured adequate income for all stakeholders. However, in the case of some species such as skipjack continuous high exploitation has created an excess of supply, causing prices, and therefore income of operators, to decline.

Management of tuna


There are five regional bodies responsible for managing tuna stocks:



The five met together for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas.


The case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)


Atlantic, Pacific and southern bluefin contribute relatively little in terms of volume to the total catches of principal market tunas, but their individual value is high due to their use for sashimi and sushi (Japanese delicacy). These fish are migratory and are known to traverse the Atlantic Ocean in a few months. Bluefin tuna are among the largest bony fish in the ocean, reaching over 3.05 meters in length and over 500 kilograms in weight. Their lifespan can exceed 30 years, making them long lived among fish species [9].

Figure 3: Distribution of the Atlantic and Pacific bluefin tunas and their respective fisheries operation area Source: Allen, R. L. 2002. Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability, page 164

Catches of Atlantic bluefin followed a generally declining trend from the early 1950s to the early 1970s [10]. The Atlantic population of the species has declined by nearly 90 percent since the 1970s [11]. Atlantic bluefin tuna take eight years to mature to large-medium sized fish. Scientists believe that the decline in the numbers of larger sized bluefin tuna can be attributed to the high volume of juvenile bluefin tuna caught. The problem is that fishers catch so many juvenile bluefin tunas that there are none left to mature [12].

There are two ways to save the Atlantic bluefin tuna stock- protect them in their breeding grounds and in their feeding grounds. This will require immediate action in both the central Atlantic, to reduce the mortality of the giant bluefin while foraging, and in the Gulf of Mexico and Mediterranean, where bluefin breed as discrete populations [13].

The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) has recommended, in light of severe stress on the Atlantic Ocean’s population of bluefin tuna that, for the indefinite future, no commercial fishing for juvenile fish or this species is allowed[14].


Figure 4:The Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Bluefin tuna stock in the Mediterranean is threatened by overfishing and illegal fishing Source: Brian Skerry / National Geographic Image Collection



Conclusion


It is difficult to be prescriptive regarding what is an appropriate extractive policy for a fishery; the policy will differ depending on the individual characteristics of the fishery, the fishers and the objectives of the property right holder. Some form of regulation is needed in a fishery to prevent the “tragedy of the commons” – where individual fishers are motivated to operate beyond the maximum sustainable yield, often leading to biological and economic over-exploitation. Without a clearly defined set of policies, the consequent institutions may not achieve a desired result[15].



See also

Internal links

Impact of fisheries on coastal systems
Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity
Legislation for the sea
The tragedy of the commons: Is the Newfoundland's cod crisis a good example?


External links

Economics of fisheries- Encyclopedia of Earth


References


  1. Ostrom, E., J. Burger, et al. (1999). Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges. Science 284 (5412): 278
  2. Hillmann, Ayre L. “Private ; (2002) Solutions for Externalities, Responsibilities and Limitations of Governments”, Public Finance and Public Policy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p.231
  3. Garrett Hardin, (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, December 13,1968, p.1243
  4. Harris, Jonathan; Codur Anne-Marie; (2007) Economics of fisheries, Encyclopedia of Earth, www.eoearth.org/article/Economics_of_fisheries
  5. Shepherd, J.G;(2003) “Economic Aspects of Fisheries Management” in Sustainable Fisheries: Myth or Mirage School of Ocean & Earth Science, University of Southampton
  6. “The State of Environment- Europe and Central Asia, Marine and coastal areas” in UNEP Global Environment Outlook 2000
  7. Allen, R. L. (2002). Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and technological issues. Proceedings of the Tuna 2002 Kuala Lumpur, 7th INFOFISH World Tuna Trade Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 30 May-1 June, 2002, pp. 3-12. Kuala Lumpur, INFOFISH. 208 pp.
  8. Josupeit, Helga; (2004) Global World Tuna Markets” INFOFISH TUNA CONFERENCE 3-5 June 2004, Bangkok, Thailand, Food and Agriculture Organisation
  9. An Assessment of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (1994), Committee to Review Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, Ocean Studies Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources (CGER), National Academy Press; page 5
  10. Allen, R. L. (2002) Global tuna resources: limits to growth and sustainability. In S. Subasinghe & P. Sudari, eds. Global tuna industry situation and outlook: resources, production & marketing trends and technological issues, page 168
  11. Safina; (1996). Thunnus thynnus. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006
  12. Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 3
  13. Radford, Tim; (2005) Scientists call for urgent action to save Atlantic Tuna, The Guardian, April 28 2005
  14. Nickler, Patrick; (1999), A tragedy of the commons in coastal fisheries: Contending prescriptions for conservation, and the case of the Atlantic bluefin tuna, page 1
  15. Peterson, Elizabeth H;(2006) Institutional Economics and Fisheries Management, The Case of Pacific Tuna, page 40



The main author of this article is Caroline Krause
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.

Citation: Caroline Krause (2020): The Tragedy of the Commons - The Tuna Example. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_the_Commons_-_The_Tuna_Example [accessed on 28-03-2024]